Country Comparison tool

With a very high score of 90, Albania is a strongly hierarchical society: people accept an order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. This is reinforced by Albania's history of centralised one-party rule during the communist era and by deep-rooted traditions of patriarchal and clan authority, where elders and heads of family command respect. In organisations, inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat.

With a low score of 27, Albania is a collectivistic society built around close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - above all the extended family and, traditionally, the wider clan (fis). People take responsibility for fellow group members, and these bonds remain strong even across the large Albanian diaspora, whose members continue to support relatives back home. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; relationships at work are seen in moral, almost family terms; an offence leads to shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion naturally take account of a person's in-group.

With a high score of 70, Albania has a clear preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules and structure, a respect for precision and punctuality, and a cautious attitude in which security matters and decisions follow careful analysis. In practice, Albanians often combine this need for certainty with heavy reliance on trusted personal and family networks to navigate bureaucracy and an unpredictable environment - relationships provide the security that formal institutions do not always guarantee.

With a score of 56, Albania leans towards a pragmatic orientation. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, and they show a strong ability to adapt traditions to changing conditions - a trait sharpened by the country's rapid transition from a closed communist economy to an open market one. Thrift, saving and perseverance in pursuit of results are valued.

With a very low score of 15, Albania is a culture of Restraint. People tend towards caution and a degree of pessimism, place limited emphasis on leisure, and restrain the gratification of their desires, feeling that indulging too freely is somewhat wrong. This reserve is consistent with a society shaped by decades of scarcity and isolation under communist rule, where self-control and making do were necessities rather than choices.

With a high score of 80, Algeria accepts a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification. Hierarchy reflects inherent inequalities, and the unequal distribution of power is seen as legitimate, so power holders enjoy clear privileges. Status symbols matter and signal one's social position and the respect that is due. This is reinforced by the central role of the state and administration since independence, and by traditional respect for elders and authority within the family.

With a low score of 29, Algeria is a collectivist culture. From an early age people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups - the extended family and wider kin and regional networks - that protect their members in exchange for lifelong loyalty. This solidarity is reinforced by the central place of family and community in Algerian life. Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

With a high score of 70, Algeria has a strong preference for avoiding uncertainty. Society is risk-averse and cautious about change, maintaining firm codes of belief and behaviour, with an emotional need for clear rules, laws and regulations to reduce ambiguity. In daily life this shows in extensive bureaucracy and a preference for established, familiar ways of doing things over untested ideas.

With a low score of 25, Algeria has a normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by the central role of religion and long-standing social customs. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results in the present.

With a low score of 32, Algeria is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, perceiving that their behaviour should be governed by social norms. Conservative social and religious expectations reinforce the sense that indulging oneself too freely is somewhat inappropriate.

With a high score of 83, Angola is a strongly hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are seen as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by a centralised post-independence state and by traditional authority structures, where community elders and local chiefs (sobas) command respect.

With a very low score of 18, Angola is a strongly collectivistic society, defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the extended family and wider ethnic and community networks. Everyone takes responsibility for fellow members, and mutual support among kin is a cornerstone of daily life. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; relationships at work are seen in moral, family-like terms; an offence brings shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of a person's in-group.

With a score of 60, Angola has a moderate preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules and structure and some resistance to untested ideas. In practice, however, Angolans have learned to be resourceful and adaptable in the face of an unpredictable economic environment, leaning on trusted family and community networks to provide the security that formal systems may not.

With a very low score of 15, Angola has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, customs and the authority of the past - including the importance of ancestry and community ritual. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick, tangible results.

With a very high score of 83, Angola is an Indulgent culture. People are willing to follow their impulses and enjoy life, with a positive, optimistic outlook and a real value placed on leisure and having fun. This shows in Angola's vibrant music and dance culture - the home of semba and kizomba - and in lively social gatherings and celebrations, where people act as they please and spend to enjoy the moment.

At a score of 49, Argentina sits at the low end of Power Distance rankings - well below the much higher values of most other Latin American countries (Costa Rica aside). This relatively low score is rooted in the great waves of European immigration that reached the Rio de la Plata between 1870 and 1914: millions arrived, and by the 1914 census around a third of the population - one in two in Buenos Aires - had been born abroad, producing a more egalitarian, mobile society.

That said, status is still underlined: appearance matters, and a sober, well-tailored look, a valuable watch or a prestigious hotel all signal standing and ease one's entree.

With a score of 51, Argentina sits mid-range and is by far the most Individualist of the Latin American countries - again a legacy of the migration waves and the early rise of a broad middle class. Many collectivist traits nonetheless persist: the views and obligations of the extended family and in-group still count for a great deal. More individualist patterns are strongest in the large urban centres, where the employer-employee relationship is fairly calculative and private and working life are kept firmly separate.

At 86, Argentina scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance, like most Latin American countries shaped by Spanish legal traditions. These societies show a strong need for rules and elaborate legal systems to structure life - yet the individual's felt obligation to obey them is weak, so informal economies and workarounds flourish and there is a marked gap between the country "on paper" and the country in practice. Argentines navigate dense regulation and bureaucracy while relying heavily on personal trust and connections to get things done.

With a low score of 29, Argentina has a markedly normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show great respect for tradition. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future - reinforced by a long history of economic volatility that has taught people to focus on the present - and a strong orientation towards quick results.

With a high score of 62, Argentina is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to follow their impulses and enjoy life, with an optimistic outlook and a real value placed on leisure. This comes through in the country's famous social life - long cafe gatherings, the weekend asado with family and friends, and an all-consuming passion for football - where time spent together and enjoying the moment is highly prized.

With a very high score of 85, Armenia is a society where power holders are clearly set apart. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification, and unequal power is seen as legitimate, so status symbols carry weight. This is reinforced by strong respect for elders and the head of the family, and by the long-standing moral authority of the Armenian Apostolic Church.

With a very low score of 17, Armenia is a strongly collectivist culture. From an early age people are bound into close, cohesive in-groups - above all the family - that protect their members in exchange for loyalty. These ties extend to the large worldwide Armenian diaspora, which maintains dense networks of mutual support. Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

At 88, Armenia scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules, laws and regulations to reduce ambiguity. Given a turbulent history and an uncertain regional environment, much of this need for security is met through tight family and community networks as well as formal structures.

With a score of 38, Armenia has a largely normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show deep respect for tradition - fitting for one of the world's oldest Christian nations, with a strong attachment to history, heritage and the Church. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 25, Armenia is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and feel that indulging themselves too freely is somewhat wrong. A degree of seriousness and stoicism, shaped by a history of hardship and survival, reinforces the sense that behaviour should be governed by social norms.

Australia scores low on this dimension (38), reflecting a strongly egalitarian culture captured in the ideals of "mateship" and a "fair go" for everyone. Within organisations hierarchy exists mainly for convenience; superiors are accessible, managers draw on the expertise of individuals and teams, and people expect to be consulted. Communication is informal, direct and participative - first names are used freely - and those who flaunt status risk the famous "tall poppy" treatment.

With a score of 73, Australia is a highly Individualist culture: a loosely knit society in which people are expected to look after themselves and their immediate families and to value personal independence. In the workplace employees are expected to be self-reliant and show initiative, and hiring and promotion are based on merit and on what a person has done or can do.

Australia scores an intermediate 51 on this dimension, showing no strong preference for or against uncertainty. Australians are generally relaxed and pragmatic in the face of ambiguity - the easy-going "she'll be right" attitude - while still valuing reasonable rules and planning. New ideas and ways of doing things are accepted readily enough, without a strong emotional need for rigid structure.

With a score of 56, Australia has a moderately pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions fairly readily, and show a reasonable propensity to save, invest and persevere in pursuit of results.

With a high score of 71, Australia is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and follow their impulses, with an optimistic outlook and a strong value placed on leisure. This is evident in the celebrated outdoor lifestyle - the beach, barbecues, sport and weekends away - and in a broad cultural emphasis on work-life balance and making time to enjoy oneself.

Austria scores very low on this dimension (11), one of the lowest in the world. Austrians value independence, equal rights and hierarchy only for convenience; power is decentralised, managers rely on the experience of their teams, and employees expect to be consulted while control is disliked. Communication is direct and participative. This egalitarian, consensus-seeking style is institutionalised in Austria's tradition of "social partnership" (Sozialpartnerschaft), in which employers and employees negotiate as equals.

With a score of 77, Austria is an Individualist society with a preference for a loosely knit social framework in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. Offence causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer-employee relationship is a contract based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion are expected to rest on merit, and management is the management of individuals.

Austria scores 70 and has a clear preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for precision and punctuality, an inner urge to stay busy and work hard, and decisions are taken after careful analysis of the available information. A telling reflection of this is the importance of academic and professional titles, which Austrians traditionally use as part of a person's name.

With a score of 47, Austria shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. Austrians combine a respect for tradition and established institutions with a practical, results-oriented approach and a healthy propensity to save - without either orientation clearly dominating.

With a score of 63, Austria is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with a generally positive outlook. This shows in the cherished Viennese coffeehouse tradition, a rich musical and festive life, and a love of alpine leisure - skiing, hiking and the outdoors - where Austrians make real time to relax and enjoy themselves.

With a very high score of 85, Azerbaijan is a society where power holders stand at a clear distance. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place, unequal power is seen as legitimate, and status symbols matter. This is reinforced by a strongly centralised state and by traditional respect for elders and the head of the family - the long-standing authority of the "aksakal" (white-bearded elder) in community life.

With a low score of 28, Azerbaijan is a collectivist culture. People are integrated early into strong, cohesive in-groups - the extended family and wider kin and regional networks - that protect their members in exchange for loyalty. Renowned hospitality and dense family obligations reflect this. Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

At 88, Azerbaijan scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. In practice this need for security is met through both formal structures and tight family and community networks, which help people navigate an unpredictable environment.

With a score of 59, Azerbaijan leans towards a pragmatic orientation. People accept that truth depends on context, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving and perseverance - traits sharpened by the country's rapid transformation since independence and the modernisation driven by its oil and gas economy.

With a low score of 22, Azerbaijan is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. Conservative social expectations reinforce the sense that indulging oneself too freely is somewhat inappropriate.

Bangladesh scores high on this dimension (80), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by deep respect for elders and seniority and by enduring patron-client relationships rooted in the country's agrarian, landholding traditions.

With a score of 5, Bangladesh is one of the most collectivistic societies in the world. Life is built around close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the extended family and the village community - where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members. Loyalty overrides most formal rules; relationships at work are seen in moral, family-like terms; an offence leads to shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of a person's in-group.

With a score of 60, Bangladesh has a moderate preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules and a respect for hard work and effort. In everyday life, however, people are also strikingly resourceful and adaptable, improvising solutions and leaning on family and community networks to cope with an often unpredictable environment.

With a score of 38, Bangladesh leans towards a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by the central place of religion and family custom in daily life. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a very low score of 20, Bangladesh is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and exercise control over their desires, feeling that indulging themselves too freely is somewhat wrong. Conservative religious and social norms, together with a strong sense of duty to family, reinforce this restraint.

With a very high score of 95, Belarus is a society where power holders are very distant. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification, unequal power is seen as legitimate, and status symbols carry weight. This is strongly reinforced by a highly centralised state and an enduring Soviet-era administrative legacy, in which authority flows clearly from the top down.

With a score of 48, Belarus shows no strong preference on this dimension, sitting between collectivist and individualist tendencies. Close family ties, loyalty to one's circle and mutual help among trusted contacts remain important - a legacy of the Soviet period - while more individualist, self-reliant patterns are increasingly visible, especially among younger people and in the cities.

At 95, Belarus scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and strongly risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules, laws and regulations. This is mirrored in an extensive, formal state bureaucracy and a general preference for stability, order and the predictable over the untested.

With a score of 53, Belarusian culture shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. A respect for tradition and established ways sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak and a propensity to save - neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a very low score of 15, Belarus is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and tend towards caution and a degree of pessimism, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This reserve fits a society shaped by economic hardship and a long tradition of stoicism and making do.

With a score of 65, Belgium scores relatively high on this dimension: inequalities are accepted and hierarchy is seen as necessary. Superiors may enjoy privileges and can be hard to reach, and power is fairly centralised - though it is also split along the country's linguistic lines, with Flemish and Walloon institutions each managing their own affairs. In organisations the tone is formal, first contact is on a surname basis, and information flows through the hierarchy; control of information is associated with power. Control is normal and even expected, but seen as a formality rather than the key to efficiency.

At 81, Belgium scores very high on Individualism: people favour private opinions and looking after themselves and their immediate family rather than belonging to a group. At work, relationships are contract-based, the focus is on the task, autonomy is valued, and recognition of one's own work is expected; towards those in power, a less direct style is preferred than among peers. Belgian (like French) culture combines this strong Individualism with a real need for hierarchy - a tension that makes relationships delicate but, once managed, intense and productive. Managers are well advised to add a second, personal layer of communication, giving everyone the sense that they matter even within an unequal structure.

At 94, Belgium has one of the highest Uncertainty Avoidance scores in the world - a trait its history of being frequently ruled by others helps explain. Certainty is sought through academic rigour, detail, context and background, and teaching tends to be deductive. In organisations, rules and security are welcome and their absence creates stress, so planning and expertise are valued while constant change feels stressful. Both the northern and southern communities share this high score, which is precisely what makes negotiating a new set of rules - a state reform or constitution - so painful.

With a score of 61, Belgium leans towards a pragmatic orientation. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and show thrift, a propensity to save and invest, and perseverance in achieving results.

With a score of 57, Belgium leans towards Indulgence. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with a generally positive outlook. This comes through in a rich culture of conviviality - the celebrated beer and cafe tradition, chocolate and gastronomy, and lively local festivals and carnivals - where good food, drink and sociable time together are genuinely savoured.

With a very high score of 94, Bhutan is a strongly hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. This is reinforced by reverence for the monarchy and the Buddhist monastic establishment, and by traditional respect for elders and authority. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat.

With an intermediate score of 52, Bhutan shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing collectivist and individualist traits. Close family and tight village communities, with their traditions of mutual help, remain central to life, while a degree of individual self-reliance coexists alongside them - neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a low score of 28, Bhutan is comfortable with uncertainty and fairly relaxed about the future. Plans exist but can be adjusted at short notice, improvisation is accepted, and there is openness to new ideas and ways of doing things. This easy acceptance of what comes is in keeping with Buddhist values of impermanence and equanimity, which encourage taking life as it unfolds rather than tightly controlling it.

No score is currently available for Bhutan on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Bhutan on this dimension.

At 78, Bolivia scores high on this dimension: people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification, and the unequal distribution of power is seen as legitimate, so power holders enjoy clear privileges and status symbols carry weight. This reflects both a colonial legacy of stratified society and enduring traditional structures of community and elder authority among Bolivia's large indigenous populations.

With a low score of 23, Bolivia is a strongly collectivistic society. People are integrated early into cohesive in-groups - the extended family and, for many, the indigenous community - that protect their members in exchange for loyalty. This is reinforced by deep-rooted Andean traditions of communal organisation and reciprocity (ayni), where mutual help is an obligation. Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

At 87, Bolivia scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. In a country with a large informal economy and a turbulent political history, much of the security people seek is also found in tight family and community networks alongside formal structures.

With a low score of 21, Bolivia has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - vividly alive in Andean customs and rituals, such as offerings to Pachamama (Mother Earth). There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With an intermediate score of 46, Bolivia shows no clear preference between Indulgence and Restraint. A genuine love of festivity - seen in the country's exuberant religious and folk celebrations, such as the Carnaval de Oruro - sits alongside a more restrained, traditional everyday outlook, with neither tendency clearly dominating.

With a very high score of 90, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a society where power holders are clearly distant. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification, unequal power is seen as legitimate, and status symbols carry weight. Layered imperial legacies (Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian) and a complex, multi-tiered post-war system of government reinforce the sense that authority is concentrated and hierarchical.

At 40, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a relatively collectivist culture where people act in the interests of the group rather than purely their own. In-group ties - above all family, but also ethnic and religious community - shape behaviour: hiring and promotion favour the in-group, relationships with in-group colleagues are warm and cooperative while those with out-groups can be cool or distant, and personal relationships take priority over tasks and the organisation. This in-group/out-group divide is sharpened by the country's ethnic make-up and recent history.

At 87, Bosnia and Herzegovina scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are risk-averse and cautious about change, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. In practice, navigating the country's notoriously complex bureaucracy means people lean heavily on trusted personal and family networks to provide the security that formal institutions do not always deliver.

With a score of 36, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a largely normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on quick results. This short-term orientation may also reflect the legacy of the 1990s war, since conflict tends to push societies towards present-focused thinking.

With an intermediate score of 44, no clear preference between Indulgence and Restraint emerges for Bosnia and Herzegovina. A warm tradition of socialising - long coffee gatherings and hospitality are a real part of daily life - sits alongside a more restrained, careful outlook shaped by harder times, with neither tendency clearly dominating.

With a score of 69, Brazil is a society where hierarchy is respected and inequalities among people are accepted, so power holders enjoy clear benefits. Respect for the elderly is important - children look after their ageing parents - and in companies a single boss tends to take complete responsibility. Status symbols matter as a way of signalling social position and the respect that is due.

With a score of 36, Brazil is a collectivist society: from birth people are part of strong, cohesive groups - above all the extended family of uncles, aunts, grandparents and cousins - which protect their members in exchange for loyalty. This carries into work, where a senior, well-placed relative is expected to help a younger family member find a job. Building trusting, long-lasting relationships matters: meetings often open with general conversation before any business, and the communication style is context-rich, with people speaking expansively and writing at length.

At 76, Brazil scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance, like most of Latin America, with a strong need for rules and elaborate legal systems to structure life - even though the felt obligation to obey them is weaker, so when a rule cannot be kept, another is added. Bureaucracy, laws and regulations are seen as making the world safer, yet Brazilians are famous for the "jeitinho", the knack of finding a creative workaround. The high score also pairs with a warm, expressive everyday life - long meals, easy conversation, dancing - and emotions are shown readily in body language.

At 28, Brazil has a normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by the central place of faith and family. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a strong focus on achieving quick results and enjoying the present.

With a score of 59, Brazil is an Indulgent society. People are inclined to follow their impulses and enjoy life, with an optimistic outlook and a real value placed on leisure. This is unmistakable in Brazilian life - Carnival, samba, football and the beach - where celebration, music and time spent enjoying oneself are woven into the culture.

Bulgaria scores high on this dimension (70), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the legacy of centralised communist-era administration and by traditional respect for elders and authority.

With a score of 50, Bulgaria shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing collectivist and individualist tendencies. Close family ties and loyalty to one's circle remain important - reinforced by the communist-era emphasis on the collective - while more individualist, self-reliant patterns are increasingly visible, especially among younger people and in the cities.

Bulgaria scores 85 and has a very strong preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for hard work, precision and punctuality, and some resistance to innovation, with security an important motivator. In daily life this shows in a weighty bureaucracy and a general preference for the familiar and predictable over the untested.

With a score of 51, Bulgaria shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. Respect for tradition and established ways sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak and a reasonable propensity to save, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a very low score of 16, Bulgaria is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and tend towards caution and a degree of pessimism, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This reserve fits a society marked by economic hardship and the difficult transition from communism.

Burkina Faso scores 70 on this dimension, making it a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by enduring traditional authority - notably the Mossi chieftaincy and the standing of the Mogho Naba - and by deep respect for elders.

With a very low score of 15, Burkina Faso is a strongly collectivistic society defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the extended family and the village community. Everyone takes responsibility for fellow members, and mutual support among kin and neighbours is central to daily life. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; relationships at work are seen in moral, family-like terms; an offence brings shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of a person's in-group.

With an intermediate score of 55, Burkina Faso shows no strong preference on Uncertainty Avoidance, sitting between a need for structure and a tolerance for ambiguity. In practice, people combine a respect for established custom with a great deal of resourcefulness and adaptability in the face of an unpredictable environment, leaning on family and community to manage what cannot be controlled.

With a low score of 27, Burkina Faso has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, custom and the authority of elders and ancestors. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick, tangible results.

With a very low score of 18, Burkina Faso is a strongly Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and exercise control over their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms and that indulging too freely is somewhat wrong. This restraint is consistent with the demands of life in one of the world's lower-income countries, where resilience and making do are everyday necessities.

With a score of 39, Canadian culture is marked by interdependence and a value placed on egalitarianism, reflected in the relative absence of overt status or class distinctions. Hierarchy in organisations exists for convenience; superiors are accessible, managers draw on the expertise of individuals and teams, and consulting one another and sharing information freely is customary. Communication is straightforward, and the broadly egalitarian, inclusive ethos is reinforced by Canada's official multiculturalism.

At 72 - its highest dimension score - Canada is an Individualist culture. As with its American neighbour to the south, this means a loosely knit society in which people are expected to look after themselves and their immediate families. In the workplace employees are expected to be self-reliant and show initiative, and hiring and promotion are based on merit and on what a person has done or can do.

At 48, Canada is fairly "uncertainty accepting". New ideas, innovative products and novel ways of doing things - in technology, business or consumer products - are readily accepted, and Canadians are tolerant of differing opinions and value freedom of expression. The culture is not strongly rules-oriented, and people tend to be somewhat less emotionally expressive than higher-scoring cultures.

At 54, Canada has a moderately pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on situation, context and time, adapt traditions to changing conditions fairly readily, and show a reasonable propensity to save and invest, with thrift and perseverance in pursuit of results.

With a score of 68, Canada is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic outlook. This shows in Canadians' enthusiasm for the outdoors in every season - from lake cottages and hiking in summer to hockey, skiing and skating in winter - and a general emphasis on making time to enjoy life.

Note: these descriptions apply to Canadian culture overall; there are subtle differences between Anglophone and Francophone (Quebec) Canada. Compared with Anglophones, French-Canadians tend to be more formal, hierarchical, moderately more relationship-focused and more emotionally expressive. Quebec's scores are: PDI 54, IDV 73, MAS 45, UAI 60.

With a high score of 75, Cape Verde is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This reflects a Portuguese colonial administrative legacy and traditional respect for elders and authority across the islands.

With a very low score of 20, Cape Verde is a collectivistic society built around close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the extended family and tight island communities. These bonds reach across the large Cape Verdean diaspora, whose remittances and continued ties sustain families at home, and they are expressed in the islands' famous warmth and hospitality ("morabeza"). Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

With a score of 40, Cape Verde is fairly comfortable with uncertainty. Plans exist but can be adjusted at short notice, improvisation is accepted, and people are fairly relaxed and open to new ideas. This easygoing adaptability suits the rhythm of island life, often captured in the Cape Verdean expression "no stress".

With a very low score of 12 - one of the lowest of any country - Cape Verde has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, faith and established custom. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick, tangible results.

With a very high score of 83, Cape Verde is a strongly Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic, easygoing outlook. This is embodied in the islands' rich musical soul - the melancholy-sweet morna made famous by Cesaria Evora, along with coladeira and lively festivals - where music, dance and sociable time together are at the heart of life.

Though Chile scores lower on Power Distance than most other Latin American countries, at 63 it still sits in the intermediate-to-high range. Remnants of an authoritarian past linger in many areas: organisations tend towards taller pyramids with little delegation, and status symbols are used to underline differences in power. A hierarchical social structure with fairly rigid social classes persists - shared cafeterias are rare, and privileges for those in power are common.

With a score of 49, Chile sits mid-range and shows no strong preference on this dimension. Close family ties and loyalty to one's group remain important, while more individualist, self-reliant patterns are increasingly visible in the cities and in modern working life, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

At 86, Chile scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance, like most Latin American countries shaped by Spanish legal traditions, with a strong need for rules and elaborate legal systems to structure life. Unusually for the region, however, Chile records relatively low levels of corruption. In line with its high score - and partly fostered by its authoritarian past - there is a marked reliance on experts and the authorities, especially among non-managerial employees.

With a very low score of 12, Chile has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by the enduring influence of Catholic faith and family custom. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a high score of 68, Chile is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with a positive, optimistic outlook. This comes through in the country's love of celebration - the Fiestas Patrias in September, with their food, wine and cueca dancing - and in convivial gatherings of family and friends where enjoying the moment is highly valued.

At 80, China sits high on this dimension: inequalities among people are broadly accepted. The subordinate-superior relationship tends to be sharply defined, formal authority and sanctions carry weight, and people are not expected to have aspirations beyond their rank. This deference is rooted in the Confucian tradition of ordered relationships and respect for hierarchy and age that has shaped Chinese society for centuries.

At 43, China is a collectivist culture where people act in the interests of the group rather than purely themselves. In-group ties shape behaviour: hiring and promotion favour closer in-groups such as family, and relationships with in-group colleagues are cooperative while those with out-groups can be cool or distant. Personal relationships - the networks of mutual obligation known as "guanxi" - often take priority over tasks and the organisation, and an offence leads to loss of face.

At 30, China scores low on Uncertainty Avoidance. Truth may be relative, and although rules abound, adherence to them is flexible and adapted to the actual situation - pragmatism is a fact of life. The Chinese are comfortable with ambiguity (the language itself is rich in ambiguous meanings) and are notably adaptable and entrepreneurial, reflected in the large number of small and medium-sized, family-owned businesses.

At 77, China is a highly pragmatic, long-term-oriented culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and show strong thrift, a famously high propensity to save and invest, and perseverance in pursuit of long-term results - an outlook mirrored in the country's long-horizon approach to economic development.

With a low score of 24, China is a Restrained society. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This fits with a strong cultural emphasis on self-discipline, thrift and saving rather than spending on immediate enjoyment.

At 67, Colombia scores high on this dimension: inequality is accepted as a fact of life across all layers of society. Power tends to be concentrated at the top of any structure - a union leader holds far more power than the management team, who in turn hold more than ordinary members, and the same pattern repeats among business leaders and in the upper reaches of government.

At 29, Colombia is among the most collectivistic cultures in the world. Belonging to an in-group and aligning with its views matters greatly, and combined with high Power Distance these groups often carry strong identities tied to social class. Loyalty is paramount, and it is frequently through "cooperative" in-groups that people obtain privileges and benefits; conflict is avoided to preserve harmony and save face. Relationships come before the task: Colombians will go out of their way to help someone with whom a relationship - or any "in-group" connection, however thin - has been established, while "outsiders" can easily be excluded. The communication style is context-rich, so speeches and documents tend to be extensive and elaborate.

At 80, Colombia scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance, seeking mechanisms to avoid ambiguity. Emotions are openly expressed, there are extensive rules for everything, and social conservatism - reflected in a widely followed, conservative Catholicism - has a strong following. Yet rules are not automatically obeyed: whether they are followed depends on the in-group's view of whether they apply and, ultimately, on power holders, who make their own rules. In practice this produces detailed plans that may not be followed.

Combined with the other dimensions, this makes the status quo hard to change unless a figure of authority can gather a large following and lead them towards it.

With a very low score of 6 - one of the lowest in the world - Colombia has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, reinforced by the central place of Catholic faith and family. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a strong focus on achieving quick results.

With a very high score of 83, Colombia is a strongly Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with a famously positive, optimistic outlook even amid difficulty. This shows in Colombia's exuberant celebration culture - the Carnaval de Barranquilla, music and dance such as cumbia and vallenato, and a passion for football and fiestas - where enjoying the moment with others is highly prized.

At 35, Costa Rica scores the lowest on Power Distance of any Latin American country. Famously, it abolished its army in 1948, and President Oscar Arias won the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end Central America's civil wars. Costa Ricans - the "Ticos" - are known for their strong human-rights record and a deep focus on equality and consensus, which translates into relatively little distance between blue-collar and white-collar workers.

With a score of 15, Costa Rica is, like its neighbours, a strongly collectivistic society where trust, loyalty, personal relationships and networking are essential. Family - and mothers especially - is held sacred. Getting straight to the point is seen as rude and hard selling does not work; helping someone through a difficult moment is never forgotten, and because relationships matter so much, a great deal of time is invested in building trust.

At 86, Costa Rica scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance: formality and a strong emotional need for structure and rules matter, even when the rules are not always followed. Bureaucracy is heavy and time-consuming, with paperwork, official stamps and written instructions carrying real weight, and Ticos can be cautious towards unfamiliar ideas - even the warm climate does not relax the expected dress code. The well-known exception is "Tico time", a notably flexible attitude to punctuality.

No score is currently available for Costa Rica on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Costa Rica on this dimension.

Croatia scores high on this dimension (73), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the legacy of centralised socialist-era administration and by traditional respect for authority and the Catholic Church.

With a score of 42, Croatia is a relatively collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and close relationships. Loyalty is paramount and overrides many formal rules; the society fosters strong relationships in which people take responsibility for fellow group members. An offence leads to shame and loss of face, work relationships are seen in moral terms, hiring and promotion take account of the in-group, and managing people means managing groups.

Croatia scores 80 and has a very strong preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for hard work, precision and punctuality, and some resistance to innovation, with security an important motivator. In daily life this shows in a weighty bureaucracy and a general preference for established, familiar ways over the untested.

With a score of 40, Croatia leans towards a normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show respect for tradition, with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 33, Croatia is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, with a degree of caution and reserve, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This sits alongside a more relaxed Mediterranean sociability on the Adriatic coast, but the overall orientation remains restrained.

With a score of 57, the Czech Republic is a moderately hierarchical society in which a clear order, where everyone has a place, is broadly accepted. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is fairly popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. Layers of Austro-Hungarian and later communist-era administration have left a legacy of formal hierarchy and respect for officialdom.

With a score of 70, the Czech Republic is an Individualist society, with a preference for a loosely knit framework in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. Offence causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer-employee relationship is a contract based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion are expected to rest on merit, and management is the management of individuals.

The Czech Republic scores 74 and has a high preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for precision, punctuality and hard work, and some resistance to innovation, with security an important motivator. This shows in a formal, detail-oriented bureaucracy and a preference for clear procedure.

With a score of 51, the Czech Republic shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. Respect for tradition sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak and a reasonable propensity to save, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a low score of 29, the Czech Republic is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and lean towards caution and a degree of scepticism - captured in a famously dry, ironic sense of humour - feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms.

With a score of 18, Denmark sits at the very low end of this dimension. Danes do not so much lead as coach, and employee autonomy is expected - Denmark ranks among the highest in the EU on this measure. With a strongly egalitarian mindset, Danes value independence, equal rights, accessible superiors and managers who facilitate and empower; power is decentralised and managers rely on their teams' experience. Respect is earned by demonstrating hands-on expertise. Workplaces are informal, communication is direct and on a first-name basis, and employees expect to be consulted.

With a very high score of 89, Denmark is a strongly Individualist society, with a preference for a loosely knit framework in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. It is relatively easy to start doing business with Danes: small talk is minimal and relationships need not come first. Danes are also known for a very direct style of communication.

With a score of 23, Denmark scores low on this dimension: Danes need little structure or predictability and are comfortable when plans change or new things come up. Curiosity is encouraged from a young age, and this combination of high Individualism and curiosity helps drive Denmark's strong reputation in innovation and design - what is different is attractive. At work, the low score shows in an ease with ambiguity and a willingness to simply say "I don't know".

With a score of 59, Danish culture is relatively pragmatic. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and show thrift, a propensity to save and invest, and perseverance in achieving results.

With a score of 70, Denmark is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic outlook. This is captured in the much-loved concept of "hygge" - cosy, convivial time with family and friends - and in a strong emphasis on enjoying everyday life and protecting time away from work.

With a score of 65, the Dominican Republic is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by a political history of strong, personalised leadership and by enduring differences of class and status.

With a score of 38, the Dominican Republic is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and close relationships. Loyalty is paramount and overrides many formal rules; people take responsibility for fellow group members, an offence brings shame and loss of face, work relationships are seen in moral terms, and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With a score of 45, the Dominican Republic is fairly comfortable with uncertainty. Plans exist but can be adjusted at short notice and improvisation is accepted; people are relatively relaxed, open to new ideas and not especially risk-averse. This easygoing adaptability fits the relaxed Caribbean rhythm of daily life.

With a very low score of 11, the Dominican Republic has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, reinforced by the central place of family and Catholic faith. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With an intermediate score of 54, the Dominican Republic leans slightly towards Indulgence without a strong preference. A genuine love of music, dance and festivity - the country is the home of merengue and bachata - and a sociable, optimistic outlook sit alongside the practical constraints of everyday life.

At 78, Ecuador sits high on this dimension: inequality is accepted as a fact of life across all layers of society and is often linked to race and social class, with people of European descent frequently regarded - and widely accepted - as "superior" to those of indigenous descent. The military has historically formed a power elite with an important political role, and coups have recurred through Ecuador's history, reflecting this concentration of power.

At 24, Ecuador is among the collectivistic cultures of the world, where belonging to an in-group is very important. Combined with high Power Distance, group identities are often tied to race and class, and conflict is avoided to preserve harmony and save face. Relationships come before tasks: Ecuadorians show strong solidarity towards their in-groups and will readily help those with whom they share a connection, while "outsiders" - including foreigners who have not cultivated relationships - can easily be excluded. The communication style is context-rich, so people tend to speak and write at length.

At 67, Ecuador scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance, using various mechanisms to avoid ambiguity: emotions are openly expressed, legislation is extensive and detailed, and social conservatism prevails. Rules are not automatically followed, though - this depends on power holders, who make their own rules, and on whether a group feels the rules apply to it. Religion and folk belief have large followings, and each group deeply respects its own traditions, even if not those of others. Combined with high Power Distance and Collectivism, this means the status quo tends to change only when an authority figure leads a large following in pursuit of change.

With a low score of 24, Ecuador has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by strong Catholic faith and indigenous custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

No score is currently available for Ecuador on this dimension.

Egypt scores high on this dimension (80), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by one of the world's longest traditions of centralised state authority and by deep respect for elders and seniority within the family.

With a score of 13, Egypt is a very collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and wider relationships. Loyalty is paramount and overrides many formal rules; people take responsibility for fellow group members, an offence brings shame and loss of face, work relationships are seen in moral terms, and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. Family and faith-based community are central to everyday life.

With a score of 55, Egypt has a moderate preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules and a respect for hard work and structure. In practice this shows in a substantial bureaucracy, while much of the security people seek is also found in family, community and religious faith, which help make an unpredictable environment feel more certain.

With a score of 22, Egypt has a normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show respect for tradition - reinforced by the central role of religion in daily life - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a very low score of 0, Egypt is among the most Restrained societies in the world. People place little emphasis on leisure and firmly control the gratification of their desires, feeling strongly that behaviour should be governed by social norms. Conservative religious and social expectations, together with a strong sense of duty to family, reinforce the sense that indulging oneself is somewhat wrong.

Source of the 6D data for this country: Almutairi, S., Heller, M. and Yen, D. (2020). Reclaiming the heterogeneity of the Arab states. Cross Cultural and Strategic Management.

At 66, El Salvador sits in the upper-middle range on this dimension, meaning that hierarchy and an unequal distribution of power are largely accepted as a fact of life. Echoes of the country's authoritarian past - decades of military rule and the concentration of land and wealth in a small elite up to the civil war (1980-1992) - still shape institutions today. Organisations tend to be built as tall pyramids with centralised decision-making and little delegation; subordinates expect to be directed, and the ideal boss is a benevolent figure of authority. Status symbols and titles are used to signal rank, although this is gradually softening among younger Salvadorans and in newer companies.

At 19, El Salvador is a strongly collectivistic society, in line with most of Latin America. People are integrated from birth into tight, cohesive in-groups - above all the extended family - that protect them in exchange for lifelong loyalty. Trust, personal relationships and networks matter more than rules or contracts, so a great deal of time is invested in building rapport before doing business, and getting straight to the point is seen as abrupt. A favour or a helping hand in a difficult moment is never forgotten. This bond stretches across borders: with a large diaspora in the United States, family loyalty is sustained at a distance through constant contact and remittances, which many households rely on as a shared family resource. Communication tends to be indirect, and an offence is felt as a loss of face for the whole group.

At 94, El Salvador scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance, as do most Latin American countries that were once part of the Spanish empire. Such societies are uncomfortable with ambiguity and rely on rules, formality and elaborate legal systems to make life predictable. Bureaucracy is correspondingly heavy and time-consuming: paperwork, official stamps and written instructions carry real weight, and following the proper procedure matters. There is a conservative streak and a degree of caution towards unfamiliar ideas. The need for order even shows in everyday life - despite the consistently warm climate, a full and correct dress code is observed. People also tend to be expressive and to show emotion openly, an accepted way of releasing the tension that uncertainty creates.

With a low score of 20, El Salvador has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with establishing the absolute truth and prefer time-honoured ways of doing things to pragmatic adaptation. There is deep respect for tradition - visible in the central place of Catholic faith, patron-saint festivals and long-standing family customs - a relatively small inclination to save for the distant future, and a strong focus on achieving quick, visible results in the here and now.

With a very high score of 89, El Salvador is a markedly Indulgent culture. Salvadorans place real value on enjoying life, leisure and time spent with others, and tend towards optimism and a positive outlook even in the face of hardship. This shows in everyday life through lively patron-saint fiestas, music, a passion for football, and a growing beach and surf culture along the Pacific coast that brings people together to socialise and unwind. People feel relatively free to act as they please and to spend on enjoying the moment rather than deferring gratification.

Estonia scores low on this dimension (40): Estonians do not readily defer to people merely because of rank, and they welcome managers who invite their opinions, allow disagreement and include them in decisions. As a country that has relatively recently emerged from transition, though, the older generation and state organisations often show higher Power Distance tendencies - older, Soviet-era ways of relating linger, so the boss-subordinate relationship can be more hierarchical than the score alone suggests.

With a score of 62, Estonia is an Individualist country. There is a strong conviction about personal responsibility and that each person's achievement is their own to make. Work is driven more by task than by relationship, and work relationships serve a functional purpose. In a loosely knit society where getting ahead does not depend on connections, transparency and honesty are valued over harmony and loyalty - so Estonians tend to be direct communicators who say what they mean, with little time for small talk.

With a score of 60, Estonia has a moderate-to-high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security and a respect for hard work and punctuality. Interestingly, this coexists with a pioneering embrace of digital government and e-services ("e-Estonia"), which can be seen as a way of making life more orderly, transparent and predictable through technology.

With a high score of 71, Estonian culture is strongly pragmatic. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving, investment and perseverance in pursuit of long-term results - an outlook reflected in the country's forward-looking investment in education and technology.

With a very low score of 16, Estonia is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and tend towards reserve and a degree of caution, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This fits the famously calm, understated Estonian temperament.

Ethiopia scores high on this dimension (70), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by Ethiopia's long imperial history, the hierarchy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and deep respect for elders and seniority.

With a very low score of 7, Ethiopia is one of the most collectivistic societies in the world, defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and community. Mutual support is formalised in traditional associations such as the "edir" (community welfare and burial societies) and "equb" (rotating savings groups). Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With an intermediate score of 55, Ethiopia shows no strong preference on Uncertainty Avoidance, sitting between a need for structure and a tolerance for ambiguity. In practice, a respect for established custom and authority is combined with considerable resourcefulness and patience in the face of an unpredictable environment.

With a very low score of 14, Ethiopia has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - fitting for a nation with one of the world's oldest Christian traditions and its own ancient calendar and customs. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With an intermediate score of 46, Ethiopia shows no clear preference between Indulgence and Restraint. A warm tradition of hospitality and communal celebration - shared meals, the coffee ceremony and religious festivals - sits alongside a more restrained, traditional everyday outlook, with neither tendency clearly dominating.

With a high score of 78, Fiji is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the traditional Fijian chiefly system, in which chiefs (turaga) and elders command deep respect within the village structure.

With a very low score of 14, Fiji is a strongly collectivistic society defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the extended family, kin group (mataqali) and village community. Sharing and mutual obligation are deeply embedded, traditionally expressed in the custom of "kerekere" (requesting and giving freely among kin). Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With a score of 48, Fiji is fairly comfortable with uncertainty. Plans exist but can be adjusted at short notice and improvisation is accepted; people are relaxed, open to new ideas and not especially risk-averse. This easygoing attitude is captured in the well-known idea of "Fiji time", a flexible approach to schedules and the pace of life.

No score is currently available for Fiji on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Fiji on this dimension.

Finland scores low on this dimension (33): the Finnish style is independent and egalitarian, with hierarchy used only for convenience. Superiors are accessible, leaders coach rather than command, and power is decentralised as managers rely on their teams' experience. Control is disliked, the attitude towards managers is informal and on a first-name basis, and communication is direct and participative - in keeping with Finland's strongly egalitarian, high-trust society.

With a score of 75, Finland is an Individualist society, with a preference for a loosely knit framework in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. Offence causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer-employee relationship is a contract based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion are expected to rest on merit, and management is the management of individuals.

With a score of 59, Finland has a moderate-to-high preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules and structure, a respect for precision, punctuality and hard work, and security matters. This is balanced by the famous Finnish quality of "sisu" - a stoic determination and resilience in the face of hardship and the unknown.

With a score of 63, Finland has a pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving, investment and perseverance in pursuit of results.

With a score of 57, Finland leans towards Indulgence. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with a generally positive outlook. This comes through in the central place of the sauna in Finnish life and a deep love of nature - summer cottages, lakes and forests - where Finns make real time to relax and recharge.

With a score of 68, France scores fairly high on Power Distance. Children are raised to be somewhat emotionally dependent on their parents, and this is later transferred to teachers and superiors, so a fair degree of inequality is accepted. Power is centralised not only in companies and government but geographically - most motorways radiate from Paris. French companies typically have one or two more hierarchical levels than comparable German or British firms, superiors enjoy privileges and can be hard to reach, and the heads of big companies are "PDG" (President Directeur General), a more prestigious title than CEO, often educated at the elite "grandes ecoles".

With a score of 74, France is an Individualist society: people are raised to look after themselves and their immediate family, with little expectation of loyalty to a wider group. What makes France distinctive is that this sits alongside a high Power Distance score -- a combination shared only with Belgium and, to a degree, Spain and northern Italy.

These two dimensions pull in opposite directions, and that tension is visible in how French society actually works. The state, not the family or the community, is the preferred source of support and authority -- impersonal enough to leave private life alone, yet powerful enough to provide security. The boss is shown formal deference, but employees who feel they know better will quietly act on their own judgment rather than say so openly. When that gap between official hierarchy and private conviction becomes too wide, it doesn't resolve gradually: change in France tends to come through rupture -- strikes, protests, the periodic collapse of political authority -- because incremental negotiation between opposing camps (employers and unions, for instance) barely exists.

In a crisis, the French appetite for strong central leadership is real and widely felt. But once the crisis passes, that same leadership is expected to step back. And at every level of society, many people need to be the *patron* of something -- a village, a club, a trade -- which means being recognised as the best at what they do. This matters for understanding customer service: what can look like indifference to Anglo-Saxon visitors is often the expectation of mutual respect. Acknowledge someone's expertise first, and they will serve you well.

At 86, France scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance. The French dislike surprises: structure and planning are expected, and they like to receive all the necessary information before meetings and negotiations. This serves them well in developing complex technologies in stable environments - nuclear power, high-speed trains, aviation. The high score, combined with high Power Distance and Individualism, also creates a need for emotional safety valves: the French are talkative, and "engueuler" (giving someone a piece of one's mind) is common. There is a strong appetite for laws and rules, though not everyone follows them - power holders, with their privileges, do not always feel bound by the rules meant for ordinary citizens, while ordinary people seek connections to power holders so that they too can claim an exception.

With a score of 60, France has a pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving, investment and perseverance in pursuit of results.

With a score of 48, France sits roughly in the middle between Indulgence and Restraint. Combined with its high Uncertainty Avoidance, this suggests the French are somewhat less relaxed and indulge in enjoyment less freely than their reputation implies - consistent with France's only middling position on international happiness rankings, despite its celebrated cuisine and art de vivre.

At 65, Georgia leans to the higher side of this dimension and is a fairly hierarchical society: people largely accept an order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification, and unequal power is seen as legitimate. This is reinforced by the strong moral authority of the Georgian Orthodox Church and by deep respect for elders and the head of the family.

With a very low score of 15, Georgia is a strongly collectivist culture, marked by early integration into and lifelong loyalty towards cohesive in-groups - above all the family. This is vividly expressed in Georgia's renowned hospitality and the tradition of the "supra" (feast), presided over by a "tamada" (toastmaster), where the bonds of family and community are celebrated. Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

At 85, Georgia scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. Given a turbulent modern history, much of the security people seek is found in tight family and community networks alongside formal structures.

With a low score of 24, Georgia has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - fitting for one of the world's oldest Christian nations, with deep attachment to its ancient language, faith and customs. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 32, Georgia is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This more reserved everyday outlook coexists with the exuberance of the feast and toast, which provide a sanctioned outlet for celebration.

Highly decentralised and supported by a strong middle class, Germany is among the lower Power Distance countries (35). Co-determination rights are extensive and must be taken into account by management. Communication and meetings are direct and participative, control is disliked, and leadership is expected to demonstrate expertise - it is best accepted when based on it.

With a score of 79, Germany is a truly Individualist society. Small families centred on the parent-child relationship are the norm, and there is a strong belief in self-actualisation. Loyalty is based on personal preference along with a sense of duty and responsibility, defined by the contract between employer and employee. Communication is among the most direct in the world, following the ideal of being "honest, even if it hurts" - giving the other person a fair chance to learn from mistakes.

With a score of 65, Germany has a slight preference for Uncertainty Avoidance. In line with the philosophical heritage of Kant, Hegel and Fichte, there is a strong preference for deductive over inductive approaches in thinking, presenting and planning - the systematic overview must be in place before proceeding - and this is mirrored in the detailed legal system. Combined with low Power Distance, where one's own decisions are not shielded by the boss's authority, Germans compensate for uncertainty by relying heavily on expertise.

With a score of 57, Germany is a pragmatic country. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and value thrift, a strong propensity to save and invest, and perseverance in achieving results.

With a score of 40, German culture leans towards Restraint. People place relatively limited emphasis on leisure and exercise control over their impulses, with a tendency towards seriousness and a sense that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This fits a culture that prizes diligence, order and a clear separation between duty and indulgence.

Ghana scores high on this dimension (80), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by Ghana's enduring system of traditional chieftaincy and by deep respect for elders and seniority.

With a very low score of 9, Ghana is one of the most collectivistic societies in the world, defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and wider community. Everyone takes responsibility for fellow members, and communal and family obligations are central to daily life. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

Ghana scores 65, which expresses a preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for hard work and effort, and some resistance to untested ideas, with security an important motivator. In practice, people balance this with reliance on family and community networks to navigate an often unpredictable environment.

With a score of 1 - effectively the lowest in the world - Ghana has an extremely normative culture. People are deeply concerned with absolute truths and show profound respect for tradition, custom, religion and the authority of elders and ancestors. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a strong focus on achieving quick results.

With a high score of 72, Ghana is an Indulgent culture. Ghanaians are known for optimism, warmth and a real zest for life, placing genuine value on leisure and enjoyment. This comes through in a vibrant social and musical culture - highlife and azonto, lively festivals and celebrations - where sociability, dressing well and enjoying the moment are highly valued.

At 60, Greece has an intermediate score that leans slightly to the higher side: hierarchy is respected and inequalities are broadly accepted, so power holders enjoy clear benefits. Respect for the elderly is important - children look after their ageing parents - and in companies a single boss tends to take complete responsibility. Greeks also take pride in the fact that much of Western culture derives from ancient Greece. Status symbols matter as a way of signalling social position and the respect that is due.

At 59, Greece is an Individualist country, with a firm belief in personal responsibility and individual achievement. Small families focused on the parent-child relationship are common, yet extended families with close ties also remain part of society. Loyalty rests on personal preference as well as a sense of duty and responsibility, and communication is direct and expressive.

At 100, Greece has the highest possible score on Uncertainty Avoidance: Greeks are deeply uncomfortable with ambiguity, ever alert to the unforeseen "lying in ambush" - the sword of Damocles overhead. As in all high-scoring societies, bureaucracy, laws and rules are valued as ways of making the world safer, and people need relaxing outlets - chatting with colleagues, long meals, dancing with friends. Greeks are passionate and demonstrative, showing emotion readily in body language. Even the ancient creation myth speaks to this trait: in the beginning there was only Chaos, until Cronos (Time) came to order life and make it manageable.

With a score of 51, Greece shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. A deep respect for tradition, history and the Orthodox Church sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a score of 50, Greece shows no clear preference between Indulgence and Restraint. A warm, sociable love of good food, company and celebration - and the famous tradition of "philoxenia" (hospitality to strangers) - is balanced by the seriousness and anxiety that come with very high Uncertainty Avoidance, so neither tendency clearly dominates.

At 95, Guatemala sits among the highest scores on this dimension: inequality is accepted as a simple fact of life across all layers of society, and power is highly concentrated - a union leader holds far more power than the management team, who in turn hold more than ordinary members, with the same pattern in business and government. This steep hierarchy reflects a colonial legacy of social stratification layered over the country's large indigenous Maya population.

At 36, Guatemala is a collectivistic culture in which belonging to an in-group and aligning with its views matters greatly; combined with high Power Distance, groups carry strong identities. Communication is indirect and group harmony is preserved, so open conflict is avoided. Relationships have a moral basis and always come before the task, so time must first be invested in building trust; nepotism is relatively common, and feedback - including at work - is given indirectly.

At 98, Guatemala scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance, seeking to avoid ambiguity. To reduce anxiety people rely heavily on ritual; emotions are openly expressed, there are extensive rules for everything, and a conservative, widely followed religion has a strong place. Yet rules are not automatically obeyed - this depends on the in-group's view of whether they apply and, ultimately, on power holders, who make their own rules - so detailed plans may not be followed in practice.

With a low score of 25, Guatemala has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reflected in the living blend of Maya custom and Catholic faith - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

No score is currently available for Guatemala on this dimension.

With a high score of 80, Honduras is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by a history of strong, personalised leadership and marked differences of class and land ownership.

With a very low score of 20, Honduras is a strongly collectivistic society defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and close relationships. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; people take responsibility for fellow group members, an offence brings shame and loss of face, work relationships are seen in moral terms, and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With an intermediate score of 50, Honduras shows no strong preference on Uncertainty Avoidance. There is a moderate openness to planning that can be adjusted at short notice and a reasonable comfort with improvisation; people combine a respect for established ways with a pragmatic, fairly relaxed willingness to make do as circumstances change.

No score is currently available for Honduras on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Honduras on this dimension.

At 68, Hong Kong scores high on this dimension: inequalities are broadly accepted. The subordinate-superior relationship tends to be clearly defined, and people are influenced by formal authority while remaining optimistic about leadership and initiative. This is reflected in the prominent role of powerful business families and tycoons in Hong Kong's economy and in a hierarchical, top-down style of management.

With a score of 50, Hong Kong shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing collectivist and individualist traits. Loyalty to the family - often expressed through tight-knit family businesses - remains strong, while the fast-paced, competitive and cosmopolitan environment of the city also rewards individual ambition and self-reliance, so neither orientation clearly dominates.

At 29, Hong Kong has a very low score on Uncertainty Avoidance. Adherence to rules can be flexible and adapted to the situation, and pragmatism is a way of life. People are comfortable with ambiguity and are notably adaptable and entrepreneurial - qualities that have helped Hong Kong thrive as a fast-moving global trade and finance hub where opportunities are seized quickly.

With a very high score of 93, Hong Kong has a strongly pragmatic, long-term-oriented culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and show marked thrift, a strong propensity to save and invest, and perseverance in pursuit of long-term results - reflected in high savings rates and a long-horizon approach to building family wealth and educating the next generation.

With a very low score of 17, Hong Kong is a strongly Restrained society. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This fits a hard-working, achievement-focused culture that prizes self-discipline and saving over immediate enjoyment.

With a score of 46, Hungary is towards the lower-middle of this dimension: the Hungarian style favours independence, hierarchy mainly for convenience, equal rights and accessible superiors, with managers who coach and empower. Power is fairly decentralised, employees expect to be consulted, control is disliked, and communication is direct, informal and on a first-name basis - though, as in much of the region, older state institutions can still show more hierarchical habits.

With a score of 71, Hungary is an Individualist society, with a preference for a loosely knit framework in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. Offence causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer-employee relationship is a contract based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion are expected to rest on merit, and management is the management of individuals.

With a score of 82, Hungary has a strong preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for hard work, precision and punctuality, and some resistance to untested ideas, with security an important motivator. In daily life this shows in a substantial bureaucracy and a preference for the familiar and well-ordered.

With a score of 45, Hungary leans towards a normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show respect for tradition - bound up with a strong sense of national identity and pride in the distinctive Hungarian language. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 31, Hungary is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and lean towards caution and a degree of pessimism - a reflective, sometimes melancholic streak often noted in Hungarian music and literature - feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms.

With a very low score of 30, Iceland is a strongly egalitarian society: hierarchy exists for convenience, superiors are accessible, and managers rely on individuals and teams for their expertise. People expect to be consulted, information is shared freely, and communication is informal, direct and participative - Icelanders famously address one another by first name (and use patronymics rather than family surnames). This flat ethos has deep roots in a society whose Althingi is among the world's oldest parliaments.

With a very high score of 83, Iceland is a highly Individualist culture: a loosely knit society in which people are expected to look after themselves and their immediate families. In business, employees are expected to be self-reliant and show initiative, and hiring and promotion are based on merit and on what a person has done or can do.

With a score of 50, Iceland is fairly comfortable with uncertainty. Plans exist but can be adjusted at short notice and improvisation is accepted; people are relatively relaxed and open to new ideas. This adaptability is almost a necessity in a land of volcanoes, storms and long winters, where Icelanders are used to coping calmly with whatever nature throws at them.

With a score of 57, Iceland has a relatively pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving, investment and perseverance in pursuit of results.

With a score of 67, Iceland is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic outlook. This shows in a lively social and creative life - a celebrated music scene, weekend revelry and a strong tradition of swimming in geothermal pools - where Icelanders make real time to relax and enjoy themselves.

India scores high on this dimension (77), reflecting an appreciation of hierarchy and top-down structure. People depend on the boss or power holder for direction, accept unequal rights between the privileged and the rest, and expect a paternalistic leader who directs and gives meaning to their work in exchange for loyalty. Real power is centralised even when it does not appear to be, and managers count on the obedience of their teams. Employees expect to be told clearly what is expected of them; control offers a kind of psychological security; and the attitude towards managers is formal even on a first-name basis, with negative feedback rarely passed upward.

With a low score of 24, India has both collectivistic and individualist traits. The collectivist side shows in a strong preference for belonging to a wider social framework - family, extended family, neighbours and work group - whose opinion shapes individual action; to be rejected by one's in-group is deeply painful. The employer-employee bond is built on mutual expectation - loyalty in exchange for almost familial protection - and relationships drive hiring and promotion. The individualist streak owes much to Hinduism: the belief in a cycle of death and rebirth, with each rebirth shaped by how one lived, makes individuals responsible for their own conduct. This interplay produces India's intermediate score.

With a score of 40, India has a medium-low preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is a real acceptance of imperfection: not everything has to go to plan, and patience and tolerance for the unexpected run high. Rules are often there to be worked around through innovative means, and the much-used word "adjust" covers everything from turning a blind eye to a rule to finding an inventive fix for a seemingly impossible problem. This capacity to "adjust" is both a source of frustration and one of the country's most empowering traits - the basis of the saying that in India "nothing is impossible" so long as one knows how to adjust.

With an intermediate score of 51, India shows no dominant preference on this dimension. The concept of "karma" pervades religious and philosophical thought, time is felt as cyclical rather than strictly linear, and there is a broad tolerance of many truths and many religious views - Hinduism itself being more an amalgam of ideas and practices than a single doctrine. This pragmatic acceptance shows in a relaxed attitude to punctuality and to changing plans as reality changes.

With a low score of 26, India is a culture of Restraint. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This is reinforced by long-standing spiritual traditions that value self-discipline, simplicity and abstinence over indulgence.

Indonesia scores high on this dimension (78): people depend on hierarchy, accept unequal rights between power holders and others, and expect directive leaders who control and delegate. Power is centralised and managers count on their teams' obedience; employees expect to be told what to do and when. Control is expected and managers are respected for their position; communication is indirect and negative feedback is hidden. It is, in essence, the classic Guru-Student dynamic, and newcomers are often struck by the visible, socially accepted disparity between rich and poor.

With a very low score of 5, Indonesia is a strongly Collectivist society in which people are expected to conform to the ideals of their in-groups. The family is central: courtship, for instance, is expected to involve formally meeting and gaining the approval of a partner's parents. Children remain committed to their parents throughout life, wishing to ease their later years - captured in the saying that "you can get another wife or husband, but not another mother or father" - and families typically keep elderly relatives at home rather than placing them in institutions.

With a score of 48, Indonesia has a low-to-moderate preference for avoiding uncertainty, shaped by the Javanese ideal of separating the inner self from the outer self: however upset someone feels, they will typically keep smiling and remain polite. Preserving workplace and relationship harmony is paramount, so no one wants to deliver bad news or negative feedback, and conflicts are often defused through a third-party intermediary, which allows views to be exchanged without loss of face. The well-known phrase "Asal Bapak Senang" (keep the boss happy) captures how harmony and security are maintained.

With a score of 29, Indonesia has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, custom and religion, with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a score of 38, Indonesia leans towards Restraint. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This fits a society that prizes social harmony, modesty and religious observance over open self-indulgence.

With an intermediate score of 58, Iran leans towards a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by deep respect for elders and the head of the family and by the authority of religious leaders in public life.

With a score of 23, Iran is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and close relationships. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. The elaborate Persian system of courtesy known as "taarof" reflects how carefully relationships and mutual face are managed.

With a score of 59, Iran has a moderate-to-high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules and structure and some resistance to untested ideas. In practice, much of the security people seek is found in tight family and personal networks, which help people navigate bureaucracy and an unpredictable environment.

With a low score of 30, Iran has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - drawing on both an ancient Persian heritage and strong religious faith - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a score of 40, Iran leans towards Restraint. People exercise control over their desires and feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, reinforced by conservative public expectations. Within the private sphere of family and friends, however, warm hospitality, poetry and celebration provide a valued outlet for enjoyment.

Iraq scores very high on this dimension (97), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the enduring authority of tribal and family elders (the sheikh) and by a political history of strongly centralised, personalised rule.

With a score of 25, Iraq is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and tribe. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. Tribal and kinship ties remain a powerful organising force in Iraqi life.

At 96, Iraq scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are risk-averse and cautious about change, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and structure. After decades of conflict and instability, much of the security people seek is found in tight family and tribal networks, which provide protection where formal institutions are uncertain.

With a low score of 11, Iraq has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by strong religious faith and the authority of the past - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a very low score of 23, Iraq is a Restrained society. People place limited emphasis on leisure and firmly control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. Conservative religious and social expectations, together with a strong sense of duty to family and community, reinforce this restraint.

Source of the 6D data for this country: Almutairi, S., Heller, M. and Yen, D. (2020). Reclaiming the heterogeneity of the Arab states. Cross Cultural and Strategic Management.

At 28, Ireland sits low on this dimension: inequalities are expected to be minimised. Within Irish organisations hierarchy exists for convenience, superiors are accessible, and managers rely on individuals and teams for their expertise. People expect to be consulted, information is shared freely, and communication is informal, direct and participative - in keeping with an easygoing, anti-pretentious culture where people relate as equals.

At 58, Ireland has a relatively Individualist culture: in business, employees are expected to be self-reliant and show initiative, and hiring and promotion are based on merit and on what a person has done or can do. This individualism is balanced by famously strong family ties and a close sense of local community.

At 35, Ireland has a low score on Uncertainty Avoidance: ideas matter and imagination is prized. Irish businesses embrace creativity and are always looking for new ways to approach problems, and making a point with practical facts is valued over heavy technical language. This love of ideas and expression runs deep in Ireland's celebrated literary and storytelling tradition.

With a score of 51, Ireland shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. A respect for tradition, faith and history sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a score of 65, Ireland is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic, sociable outlook. This is embodied in the famous notion of "craic" - good fun, lively conversation and company - and in a rich tradition of music, pubs and storytelling, where time spent enjoying oneself with others is highly valued.

With a score of 13, Israel sits at the very low end of this dimension. With an egalitarian mindset, Israelis value independence, equal rights, accessible superiors and managers who facilitate and empower; power is decentralised and managers rely on their teams' experience. Respect is earned by demonstrating hands-on expertise. Workplaces are informal, communication is direct and on a first-name basis - the famously blunt, challenge-anything quality often called "chutzpah" - and employees expect to be consulted.

With a score of 56, Israel blends individualist and collectivistic traits. Small nuclear families coexist with close-knit extended families, and there is a strong belief in self-actualisation alongside a deep sense of duty and mutual responsibility - the collectivist strand historically embodied in the communal life of the kibbutz. Loyalty rests on personal preference as well as duty, and communication is direct and expressive.

At 81, Israel is among the more Uncertainty-Avoiding countries: there is an emotional need for rules, an urge to be busy and work hard, and security matters, with precision and punctuality valued. High-scoring cultures are often very expressive, and Israelis clearly are - talking with their hands, gesturing and debating with vocal intensity. At the same time, a notable capacity for improvisation and resourcefulness under pressure helps explain Israel's reputation as a "start-up nation".

With a score of 47, Israel shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. A deep attachment to tradition, history and religious heritage sits alongside a famously pragmatic, adaptable and innovative streak, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

No score is currently available for Israel on this dimension.

With a score of 50, Italy is split. Northern Italy tends to prefer equality and decentralised decision-making; control and formal supervision are disliked, especially among younger people, who favour teamwork and an open management style - and the high Individualism score sharpens this aversion to being controlled. In Southern Italy, by contrast, the consequences of high Power Distance are often strongly felt.

At 53, Italy as a whole shows no strong preference, but a clear regional divide runs through it. The North and Centre are individualistic - especially in the big, wealthy cities, where one can feel alone even in a crowd - and personal goals and self-fulfilment are highly motivating. The South is more collectivistic: the family and one's group are central, and rituals such as weddings or Sunday family lunches are not to be missed. Southerners moving north often say they feel the cold not only in the climate but in the cooler style of relationships.

At 75, Italy scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance: Italians are uncomfortable with ambiguity. Formality matters, and the penal and civil codes are dense with clauses and codicils - yet, strikingly, Italians do not always comply with them, learning instead which rules really matter in order to survive the red tape. At work this produces detailed planning, and a flexible, change-as-you-go approach can feel stressful. Combined with the high score on Motivation for Achievement and Success, this makes for a demanding, stressful pace, so Italians need relaxing outlets - a long meal, frequent coffee breaks - and, as a passionate people, they express emotion vividly, not least through body language.

With a score of 39, Italy has a normative culture. People are concerned with establishing absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reflected in deep attachment to family, regional heritage, food and local custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 30, Italy is a Restrained culture. Despite the image of "la dolce vita", people place relatively limited emphasis on freely indulging their impulses and tend to feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, with a degree of caution and concern about the future. Enjoyment of food, family and beauty is real, but it sits within a framework of restraint and duty.

Jamaica scores low on this dimension (45): the Jamaican style favours independence, hierarchy for convenience only, equal rights and accessible superiors, with managers who coach and empower. Power is fairly decentralised, employees expect to be consulted, control is disliked, and the attitude towards managers is informal and on a first-name basis. Communication is direct and participative - in keeping with an outspoken, egalitarian streak in Jamaican culture.

With a score of 39, Jamaica is a relatively collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and community. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; people take responsibility for fellow group members, an offence brings shame and loss of face, work relationships are seen in moral terms, and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. Church and community networks play an important supporting role in everyday life.

Jamaica scores very low on this dimension (13), with a relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles and deviation from the norm is easily tolerated. People believe there should be no more rules than necessary, schedules are flexible, and punctuality does not come naturally - an easygoing, improvisational outlook often summed up in the phrase "soon come". Innovation and new ideas are not seen as threatening.

No score is currently available for Jamaica on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Jamaica on this dimension.

At an intermediate 54, Japan is borderline hierarchical. Japanese are always conscious of their hierarchical position and act accordingly, yet the society is less hierarchical than most of Asia. Foreigners often experience it as very hierarchical because of the painstakingly slow, consensus-based decision-making, in which proposals must be confirmed at every layer up to top management - yet that same process shows there is no single "top boss" who simply decides, as in more hierarchical cultures. Japan has also long been meritocratic, with a strong belief instilled by the education system that anyone can get ahead through hard work.

With a score of 62, Japan shows individualistic characteristics, though they differ from the Western kind. Unlike China or Korea, Japan has not had an extended-family system: it was a paternalistic society in which the family name and assets passed to the eldest son, while younger siblings left to make their own way. The famous loyalty of Japanese to their chosen companies is itself an individualist act, and the in-group is in a sense situational. Japanese tend to be more private and reserved than most other Asians.

At 92, Japan is one of the most Uncertainty-Avoiding countries on earth - often attributed to constant exposure to natural disasters, from earthquakes and tsunamis (a Japanese word) to typhoons and volcanic eruptions, which taught people to prepare for every contingency. Life is highly ritualised for maximum predictability: school years open and close with near-identical ceremonies nationwide, and etiquette books prescribe in detail what to wear and how to behave at weddings, funerals and other events. In companies, extensive feasibility studies and risk analysis precede any project, and managers want all the facts and figures before deciding - one reason change is so hard to bring about in Japan.

At 100, Japan is among the most long-term-oriented societies in the world. Japanese see their lives as a brief moment in the long history of mankind, and a certain fatalism is not strange to them: you do your best in your lifetime, and that is all you can do. With no notion of a single almighty God, people are guided by virtues and practical example. In business, long-term orientation shows in consistently high R&D investment even in hard times, high own-capital ratios, and a priority on steady growth of market share over quarterly profit - all serving the durability of the company, which exists to serve its stakeholders and society for generations rather than to enrich shareholders each quarter.

With a score of 42, Japan leans towards Restraint. People place relatively limited emphasis on freely indulging their impulses and feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, with a strong sense of propriety and self-discipline. Enjoyment and leisure are real, but kept within firm social expectations of modesty and consideration for others.

With a high score of 70, Jordan is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by respect for the monarchy, the standing of tribal leaders, and deep deference to elders and the head of the family.

With a low score of 20, Jordan is a strongly collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and tribe. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and connections (often termed "wasta") play a real part in hiring and promotion. Renowned hospitality and dense kinship ties are central to daily life.

With a score of 65, Jordan has a fairly high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security and some resistance to untested ideas. In a stable country in a turbulent region, much of the security people seek is found in tight family and tribal networks alongside formal institutions.

With a low score of 20, Jordan has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by religious faith and long-standing tribal and family custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a score of 43, Jordan leans towards Restraint. People exercise control over their desires and feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, reinforced by conservative social and religious expectations. Within the family and among guests, however, warm hospitality and generosity provide a valued and important outlet for enjoyment.

With a very high score of 88, Kazakhstan is a society where power holders are clearly distant. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place, unequal power is seen as legitimate, and status symbols matter. This is reinforced by a strongly centralised state, a Soviet-era administrative legacy, and traditional respect for elders - the standing of the "aksakal" (white-bearded elder) in community life.

With a very low score of 20, Kazakhstan is a strongly collectivistic society, marked by early integration into and lifelong loyalty towards cohesive in-groups - the extended family and traditional kinship networks (historically the clan and "zhuz"). People protect fellow group members, loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face. Renowned hospitality reflects the strength of these bonds.

At 88, Kazakhstan scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. In practice this need for security is met through both an extensive state bureaucracy and tight family and personal networks, which help people navigate an unpredictable environment.

With a very high score of 85, Kazakhstan has a strongly pragmatic, long-term-oriented culture. People accept that truth depends on context, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving and perseverance - traits sharpened by the country's rapid transformation since independence and its long-horizon, resource-driven development plans.

With a low score of 22, Kazakhstan is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. A degree of reserve and stoicism, reinforced by conservative social expectations, supports this restraint.

With a high score of 70, Kenya is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by deep respect for elders and traditional authority and by a centralised post-independence state.

With a very low score of 4, Kenya is one of the most collectivistic societies in the world, defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and community. Everyone takes responsibility for fellow members, a spirit captured in the national ethic of "Harambee" ("pulling together") and in widespread community self-help. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With an intermediate score of 50, Kenya shows no clear preference on Uncertainty Avoidance, sitting between a need for structure and a tolerance for ambiguity. In practice, people combine respect for established custom with considerable resourcefulness and adaptability - improvising solutions and relying on family and community to manage an often unpredictable environment.

With a very low score of 11, Kenya has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, custom and the authority of elders and ancestors, reinforced by strong religious faith. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick, tangible results.

No score is currently available for Kenya on this dimension.

Kuwait scores high on this dimension (73), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the central role of the ruling family, the standing of established merchant and tribal families, and deep respect for elders.

With a score of 28, Kuwait is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and tribe. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. The traditional "diwaniya" - regular social gatherings in the home - reflects how central kinship and networks remain to Kuwaiti life.

Kuwait scores 70 and has a clear preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security and some resistance to untested ideas. In practice this shows in a substantial state bureaucracy, while much of the security people seek is also found in family, tribe and religious faith.

With a low score of 31, Kuwait has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by religious faith and tribal and family custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 29, Kuwait is a Restrained society. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. Conservative religious and social expectations reinforce the sense that indulging oneself too freely is somewhat inappropriate.

With a low score of 44, Latvians tend to prefer equality and decentralised decision-making. Control and formal supervision are disliked, especially among younger people, who favour teamwork and an open management style - though, as in the other Baltic states, there is more deference to authority and status among the older generation, who lived under Russian and Soviet rule. Notably, Latvians valued teamwork even in the Communist era, when work units met to discuss ideas and make plans; scepticism towards power holders grew from the fact that those plans were rarely implemented.

With a high score of 70, Latvia is an Individualist country - notably, it remained so even during the Soviet occupation. The ideal of the nuclear family is strong, with close relatives in regular touch while respecting each other's space, and children are taught early to take responsibility for their own actions. Individualism has grown since independence in 1990 with rising wealth, urban living and a larger middle class, and the new generation focuses on its own performance. Latvians speak plainly, without exaggeration or understatement, and are tolerant - what you do with your life is your business, as long as it does not bother others.

With a score of 63, Latvia has a fairly high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security, a respect for hard work and punctuality, and some resistance to untested ideas. People value clear procedures and the predictability that rules provide.

With a high score of 69, Latvian culture is pragmatic. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving, investment and perseverance in pursuit of long-term results.

With a very low score of 13, Latvia is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and lean towards reserve and a degree of pessimism, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This fits a reserved temperament shaped by a hard history, though it sits alongside a deep attachment to folk song and the natural world.

Lebanon scores high on this dimension (62), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by a confessional political system organised around community leaders and by enduring networks of family and patronage (the "za'im" tradition).

With a score of 27, Lebanon is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and confessional community. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. These bonds extend across the large Lebanese diaspora, whose support sustains families at home.

With a score of 57, Lebanon has a moderate preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules and structure. In practice, amid chronic political and economic instability, Lebanese rely heavily on family and personal networks - and a famous resourcefulness and resilience - to provide the security that formal institutions often cannot.

With a score of 47, Lebanon leans relatively normative, with no strong preference either way. Respect for tradition, faith and family custom sits alongside a pragmatic, adaptable, commercially minded streak, with a relatively modest propensity to save for the distant future.

With a very low score of 10, Lebanon is a strongly Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on freely indulging their impulses and feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, with a tendency towards caution. This restraint is striking given the country's reputation for nightlife and sociability, and reflects the weight of social expectation and the seriousness imposed by difficult circumstances.

Source of the 6D data for this country: Almutairi, S., Heller, M. and Yen, D. (2020). Reclaiming the heterogeneity of the Arab states. Cross Cultural and Strategic Management.

With a very high score of 100, Libya is a clearly hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the powerful role of tribal authority and by a legacy of decades of highly centralised, personalised rule.

With a very low score of 17, Libya is a strongly collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and tribe. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. Tribal and kinship ties remain a powerful organising force in Libyan life.

With a score of 67, Libya has a high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security and some resistance to untested ideas. After years of conflict and instability, much of the security people seek is found in tight family and tribal networks, which provide protection where formal institutions are uncertain.

With a low score of 22, Libya has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by strong religious faith and tribal custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a high score of 74, Libya is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and tend towards optimism, placing real value on leisure and on time spent with family and friends. Hospitality, shared meals and sociable gatherings are an important and enjoyed part of everyday life.

Source of the 6D data for this country: Almutairi, S., Heller, M. and Yen, D. (2020). Reclaiming the heterogeneity of the Arab states. Cross Cultural and Strategic Management.

With a low score of 42, Lithuanians tend to prefer equality and decentralised decision-making. Control and formal supervision are disliked, especially among younger people, who favour teamwork and an open management style - though, as in the other Baltic states, there is more deference to authority and status among the older generation, who lived under Russian and Soviet rule. Lithuanians valued teamwork even in the Communist era, when work units met to discuss ideas and make plans; scepticism towards power holders grew from the fact that those plans were rarely implemented.

With a score of 55, Lithuania is an Individualist country - and, notably, it remained so during the Soviet occupation. The ideal of the nuclear family is strong, with close relatives in regular touch while respecting each other's space, and children learn early to take responsibility for their own actions. Individualism has grown since independence in 1990 with rising wealth, urban living and a larger middle class. Lithuanians speak plainly, without exaggeration or understatement, and are tolerant - what you do with your life is your business, as long as it does not bother others.

With a score of 65, Lithuania has a clear emphasis on Uncertainty Avoidance: people carry a built-in concern about the world around them, for which society provides legitimate outlets. Whereas in low-scoring cultures a manager can be effective without having every answer, among Lithuanians a manager is expected to know everything and to lead - which removes uncertainty and helps explain why qualifications and formal titles are prominently displayed, including on business cards. A reluctance to take risks, a weighty bureaucracy and an emotional reliance on rules - even rules that are not always followed - are further signs of the high score.

With a score of 49, Lithuania shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. A respect for tradition, faith and national identity sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak and a reasonable propensity to save, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a very low score of 16, Lithuania is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and lean towards reserve and a degree of pessimism, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This fits a reserved temperament shaped by a hard history, alongside a deep attachment to folk tradition and nature.

At 40, Luxembourg sits in the lower range of this dimension - a society that believes inequalities should be minimised. This may not be obvious at first: historically Luxembourgers have shown real respect for authority, hierarchy and structure, an apparent contradiction that the 6D Model helps reveal. They respect hierarchy much as Germans do - everyone does their job, in the right place - but change is pursued through communication and common sense rather than upheaval. A telling example: both Luxembourg and Belgium were placed under the Dutch crown by the 1815 Treaty of Vienna; where Belgium broke away in revolution in 1830, Luxembourg's full independence and neutrality were secured by the 1867 Treaty of London, which defused the Luxembourg Crisis - a dispute that had brought France and Prussia to the brink of war.

At 60, Luxembourg is "reasonably Individualist" - less so than any of its neighbours, who all score higher. Private property, family and money are real values and are protected by society; people look after themselves and their immediate family, but within reasonable limits. Strong social care, good medical provision and a certain "village atmosphere" help guarantee welfare for everyone.

At 70, Luxembourg scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance and is fairly reluctant to venture into unknown territory. Security is a watchword - scarcely an activity runs without some form of official safety control, from banking to restaurant fire exits - which makes life very safe, if some would say a little dull, and new ideas or methods usually have to be proven elsewhere before being accepted. Historically more farmers than traders, Luxembourgers kept a cautious "common sense" that has served a country which has avoided war since Napoleonic times.

With a high score of 64, Luxembourg has a clearly pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, a strong propensity to save and invest, and perseverance in achieving results.

With a score of 56, Luxembourg leans towards Indulgence. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with a generally positive, optimistic outlook. The country's prosperity and cosmopolitan, multicultural population support a real appetite for good food, travel and making time to enjoy life.

With a high score of 70, Malawi is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the enduring role of traditional chiefs and by deep respect for elders.

With a low score of 30, Malawi is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and village community. Everyone takes responsibility for fellow members, in keeping with the warmth and communal mutual support for which Malawi - the "Warm Heart of Africa" - is known. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With an intermediate score of 50, Malawi shows no clear preference on Uncertainty Avoidance, sitting between a need for structure and a tolerance for ambiguity. In practice, people combine respect for established custom with resourcefulness and adaptability, leaning on family and community to manage an often unpredictable environment.

No score is currently available for Malawi on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Malawi on this dimension.

Malaysia scores very high on this dimension (100), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat - challenges to leadership are not well received. This is reinforced by respect for traditional royalty (the sultans), for elders, and for established social position.

With a score of 27, Malaysia is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and community. This communal spirit is captured in the village ("kampung") ethic of mutual help. Loyalty is paramount and overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

Malaysia scores 36 and has a low preference for avoiding uncertainty. People keep a relatively relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles and deviation from the norm is fairly easily tolerated - there should be no more rules than necessary, schedules are flexible, and innovation is not seen as threatening. This easygoing adaptability helps a diverse, multi-ethnic and multi-faith society rub along together.

With a score of 47, Malaysia leans relatively normative, with no strong preference either way. There is great respect for tradition - reinforced by religion and long-standing custom - alongside a practical streak, with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a score of 57, Malaysia leans towards Indulgence. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic outlook. This shows vividly in the country's famous food culture and its calendar of festivals across its Malay, Chinese and Indian communities, where eating out and celebrating together are central to social life.

With a score of 56, Malta is moderately hierarchical: a clear order in which everyone has a place is broadly accepted. Inequalities are fairly taken for granted, centralisation is common, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the strong traditional authority of the Catholic Church and by a long administrative legacy from the Knights of St John through to British rule.

With a score of 59, Malta is a relatively Individualist society, with a preference for a loosely knit framework in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. Offence causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer-employee relationship is a contract based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion are expected to rest on merit, and management is the management of individuals - though on such a small, close-knit island, family and personal ties still count for a great deal.

Malta scores 96 and has a very strong preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for hard work, precision and punctuality, and some resistance to untested ideas, with security an important motivator. This need for structure sits comfortably with a deeply rooted Catholic tradition and the highly organised ritual of village "festa" celebrations.

With a score of 47, Malta shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. A deep respect for tradition, faith and family sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a score of 66, Malta is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic, sociable outlook. This comes through in a warm Mediterranean lifestyle - lively village festas, good food, and time spent by the sea with family and friends - where enjoying the moment is highly valued.

At 81, Mexico is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat (the "patron"). This is reinforced by strong respect for elders within the family and by a long history of centralised authority.

With a score of 34, Mexico is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - above all the extended family, with bonds widened by the tradition of "compadrazgo" (godparenthood). Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

Mexico scores 82 and has a high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security. As in many high-scoring cultures, rules are not always followed in practice, and much of the security people seek is found in family, faith and personal networks - while festivity and a vivid social life provide a valued release from the tension that uncertainty brings.

With a low score of 23, Mexico has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by deep Catholic faith, family custom and a strong sense of history. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a very high score of 97 - one of the highest in the world - Mexico is a strongly Indulgent culture. Mexicans place great value on enjoying life and tend towards optimism, even in hardship. This is vividly expressed in a rich calendar of fiestas, music (mariachi and more) and celebrations such as the Day of the Dead, where colour, festivity and time spent with others are central to the culture.

With a very high score of 90, Moldova is a society where power holders are clearly distant. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place, unequal power is seen as legitimate, and status symbols matter. This is reinforced by a Soviet-era administrative legacy and by traditional respect for elders and authority.

With a low score of 27, Moldova is a collectivist culture, marked by early integration into and lifelong loyalty towards cohesive in-groups - above all the family. In a largely rural society, village and extended-family ties of mutual help remain strong. Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

At 95, Moldova scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and strongly risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules, laws and regulations. This shows in a weighty bureaucracy and a general preference for stability and the familiar over the untested.

With a high score of 71, Moldova has a pragmatic, long-term-oriented culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving and perseverance - qualities well suited to a country with a deep agrarian and winemaking tradition that rewards patience and planning.

With a very low score of 19, Moldova is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and lean towards caution and a degree of pessimism, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This reserve fits a society shaped by economic hardship and a hard recent history.

With a very high score of 88, Montenegro is a society where power holders are clearly distant. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place, unequal power is seen as legitimate, and status symbols matter. This is reinforced by a heritage of clan and tribal organisation, the authority of the Orthodox Church, and deep respect for elders.

With a low score of 27, Montenegro is a collectivist culture, marked by early integration into and lifelong loyalty towards cohesive in-groups - the family and, traditionally, the clan (bratstvo). People protect fellow group members, loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence - bound up with a strong sense of honour - brings shame and loss of face.

At 90, Montenegro scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. Much of the security people seek is also found in tight family and clan networks alongside formal structures.

With a score of 40, Montenegro leans towards a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - bound up with clan heritage, Orthodox faith and a strong attachment to history - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a very low score of 20, Montenegro is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on freely indulging their impulses and feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, with a degree of caution and reserve. This sits alongside the famously relaxed Montenegrin approach to the pace of daily life.

At 70, Morocco is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by respect for the monarchy, religious authority and the elders of the family.

With a score of 24, Morocco is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and wider community. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. Renowned hospitality reflects the strength of these bonds.

With a score of 68, Morocco has a high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security and some resistance to untested ideas. In everyday commerce, however, this coexists with the lively flexibility of the souk, where bargaining and personal negotiation are a way of life.

With a low score of 25, Morocco has a clearly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by religious faith and long-standing custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 25, Morocco is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. Conservative religious and social expectations reinforce the sense that indulging oneself too freely is somewhat inappropriate.

With a very high score of 85, Mozambique is a strongly hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by a centralised post-independence state and by the standing of traditional community leaders and elders.

With a very low score of 15, Mozambique is a strongly collectivistic society, defined by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and community. Everyone takes responsibility for fellow members, and mutual support among kin and neighbours is central to daily life. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With a score of 44, Mozambique is fairly comfortable with uncertainty. Plans exist but can be adjusted at short notice and improvisation is accepted; people are relatively relaxed and open to new ideas. This adaptability and resourcefulness are well suited to coping with an often unpredictable and resource-constrained environment.

With a very low score of 11, Mozambique has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, custom and the authority of elders and ancestors. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick, tangible results.

With a very high score of 80, Mozambique is a strongly Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and tend towards optimism, placing real value on leisure and sociability. This comes through in a vibrant music and dance culture - the home of marrabenta - and in lively community celebrations, where people make time to enjoy themselves despite material hardship.

With a score of 65, Namibia is a relatively hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the standing of traditional leaders and elders across Namibia's diverse ethnic communities.

With a low score of 30, Namibia is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and community. Everyone takes responsibility for fellow members, and mutual support among kin remains central to daily life. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With an intermediate score of 45, Namibia shows no strong preference on Uncertainty Avoidance, sitting between a need for structure and a tolerance for ambiguity. In practice, people combine respect for established custom with resourcefulness and adaptability, leaning on family and community to manage an often unpredictable environment.

With a low score of 35, Namibia has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, custom and the authority of elders and ancestors. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

No score is currently available for Namibia on this dimension.

With a score of 65, Nepal is a relatively hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by deep respect for elders and seniority and by the long influence of traditional caste and social hierarchies.

With a low score of 30, Nepal is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and village community, with the joint-family household a long-standing norm. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

With a score of 40, Nepal has a medium-low preference for avoiding uncertainty. Rules are fairly flexible, emotions are not shown much, and people are relatively relaxed and open to new ideas, with a real acceptance of what cannot be changed - an outlook often captured in the Nepali phrase "ke garne?" ("what to do?"). There is a reasonable willingness to try something new or different.

No score is currently available for Nepal on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Nepal on this dimension.

The Netherlands scores low on this dimension (38): the Dutch style is independent and egalitarian, with hierarchy for convenience only. Superiors are accessible, leaders coach and empower, power is decentralised, and managers rely on their teams' experience. Control is disliked, the attitude towards managers is informal and on a first-name basis, and communication is direct and participative - reflecting a deeply egalitarian, consensus-seeking society.

With the maximum score of 100, the Netherlands is the most Individualist society in the world. There is a strong preference for a loosely knit framework in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. Offence causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer-employee relationship is a contract based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion are expected to rest on merit, and management is the management of individuals.

The Netherlands scores 53 and shows only a slight preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is some need for rules and structure and a respect for hard work and punctuality, balanced by an openness to new ideas. The Dutch genius for long-term planning and risk management is famously embodied in centuries of water management - holding back the sea through dikes and the polders.

With a high score of 67, the Netherlands has a pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, a strong propensity to save and invest, and perseverance in achieving results.

With a score of 68, the Netherlands is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic, tolerant outlook. This comes through in the famously liberal, live-and-let-live attitude, lively festivals such as King's Day, and a relaxed enjoyment of cafe terraces, cycling and the outdoors.

New Zealand scores very low on this dimension (22), reflecting a strongly egalitarian culture. Within organisations hierarchy exists for convenience, superiors are accessible, managers draw on the expertise of individuals and teams, and people expect to be consulted, with information shared freely. Communication is informal, direct and participative, and New Zealanders are wary of anyone who acts superior - the "tall poppy" is quickly cut down to size.

With a score of 69, New Zealand is an Individualist culture: a loosely knit society in which people look after themselves and their immediate families. In business, employees are expected to be self-reliant and show initiative, and hiring and promotion are based on merit and on what a person has done or can do.

New Zealand scores an intermediate 49 and shows no strong preference on this dimension. New Zealanders tend to be relaxed and pragmatic in the face of ambiguity, with a practical, resourceful "number 8 wire" knack for improvising solutions, while still valuing reasonable rules and planning.

With a score of 55, New Zealand has a relatively pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving, investment and perseverance in pursuit of results.

With a high score of 75, New Zealand is an Indulgent culture. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic outlook. This shows in a celebrated outdoor lifestyle - beaches, mountains, tramping and water sports - and a strong cultural emphasis on work-life balance and making time to enjoy the country's natural beauty.

At 80, Nigeria scores high on this dimension, meaning that a clear hierarchical order is accepted as natural and needs no further justification - everyone has a place. This is reinforced by deep cultural respect for elders, seniority and traditional authority, from family heads to chiefs and emirs. In organisations, inequality between ranks is taken for granted, decision-making is centralised, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat to whom deference is shown. Age and titles command respect and are openly acknowledged.

With a score of 0 - the lowest in the database - Nigeria is one of the most collectivistic societies in the world. People are bound by a close, long-term commitment to the in-group, whether the immediate family, the extended family or the wider community, and this loyalty overrides most other rules. Everyone is expected to take responsibility for fellow group members, and extended-family and community obligations - supporting relatives, sharing resources and looking after one's own - are taken for granted. Relationships at work are understood in moral, almost familial terms; an offence leads to shame and loss of face; hiring and promotion naturally take account of a person's in-group; and managing people means managing groups rather than individuals.

At an intermediate 55, Nigeria shows no strong preference on Uncertainty Avoidance, sitting between a need for structure and a tolerance for ambiguity. In practice, Nigerians combine both: formal rules and procedures exist, yet people are remarkably adaptable and comfortable improvising when plans change or systems fall short. A strong religious faith underpins this balance - the future is often placed in God's hands, and uncertainty is met with resilience and optimism rather than anxiety. The result is a flexible, pragmatic attitude to the unknown.

With a very low score of 8, Nigeria has a strongly normative culture rather than a pragmatic one. People are concerned with absolute truths and firm convictions - reinforced by the central place of religion, both Christianity and Islam, in everyday life. There is great respect for tradition and established ways of doing things, a relatively small inclination to save for the long-term future, and a strong focus on achieving quick, tangible results in the present.

With a very high score of 84, Nigeria is a strongly Indulgent culture. Nigerians are known for their optimism, zest for life and determination to enjoy themselves whatever the circumstances. This is vividly expressed in the country's celebration culture - the lavish "owambe" parties, weddings and ceremonies, and a globally influential Afrobeats music scene - where socialising, dressing well and having a good time are highly valued. People place real importance on leisure and on enjoying the present, feeling free to act as they please and to spend on living life fully.

With a very high score of 90, North Macedonia is a society where power holders are clearly distant. People accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place, unequal power is seen as legitimate, and status symbols matter. This is reinforced by Ottoman and socialist-era legacies of centralised authority and by traditional respect for elders and the Orthodox Church.

With a score of 40, North Macedonia is a relatively collectivist culture, marked by early integration into and lifelong loyalty towards cohesive in-groups - above all the family and extended kin. People protect fellow group members, loyalty overrides many formal rules, and an offence brings shame and loss of face. Warm hospitality and dense family ties are central to daily life.

At 87, North Macedonia scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. Much of the security people seek is also found in tight family and personal networks alongside formal structures.

With a score of 35, North Macedonia leans normative rather than pragmatic. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - bound up with Orthodox faith, family custom and national identity - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 35, North Macedonia is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure and tend to control the gratification of their desires, with a degree of caution, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This more reserved everyday outlook coexists with a warm tradition of socialising over coffee with family and friends.

Norway scores low on this dimension (31): the Norwegian style is independent and egalitarian, with hierarchy for convenience only. Superiors are accessible, leaders coach and empower, power is decentralised, and employees expect to be consulted. Control is disliked, and communication is direct, participative and consensus-oriented - in keeping with a deeply egalitarian society where flaunting status is frowned upon (the spirit of "Janteloven", the law of Jante).

With a very high score of 81, Norway is a strongly Individualist society. The "self" is important, personal opinions are valued and openly expressed, and communication is explicit. Privacy is respected, there are clear lines between work and private life, job mobility is higher, and people think in terms of individual careers. The employer-employee relationship is a contract, leaders manage individuals, feedback is direct, and nepotism is discouraged.

Norway scores 50 and shows no clear preference on this dimension, sitting between a need for structure and a tolerance for ambiguity. Norwegians combine a respect for good planning and reliable institutions with a calm, capable readiness to handle whatever an often harsh climate and demanding outdoor life throw at them.

With a score of 55, Norway has a relatively pragmatic culture. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions readily to changing conditions, and value thrift, saving, investment and perseverance in pursuit of results.

With a score of 55, Norway leans mildly towards Indulgence without a strong preference. People value leisure and enjoying life, balanced by a degree of restraint and modesty. This shows above all in "friluftsliv" - the deep love of open-air life, from hiking and skiing to weekends at the cabin - which is central to how Norwegians relax and enjoy themselves.

With an intermediate score of 55, Pakistan shows no strong preference on this dimension, sitting between hierarchy and equality. In practice, a clear acceptance of hierarchy - deep respect for elders, seniority and authority within the family and the feudal landholding tradition - coexists with more egalitarian impulses, with neither clearly dominating.

With a very low score of 5, Pakistan is one of the most collectivistic societies in the world, built around close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the extended and joint family and wider kinship networks ("biraderi"). Loyalty overrides most formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

Pakistan scores 70 and has a high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security and some resistance to untested ideas. In practice, much of the security people seek is found in family, faith and personal networks, which help people navigate bureaucracy and an unpredictable environment.

With a low score of 19, Pakistan has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by the central place of religion and family custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a score of 0 - among the most Restrained in the world - Pakistan firmly controls the gratification of desires. People place little emphasis on leisure and feel strongly that behaviour should be governed by social norms. Conservative religious and social expectations, together with a strong sense of duty to family, reinforce the sense that indulging oneself is inappropriate.

At a very high score of 95, Panama is a strongly hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. Marked differences of class and status, long a feature of Panamanian society, reinforce this steep hierarchy.

With a very low score of 11, Panama is a strongly collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and close relationships. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

Panama scores 86 and has a high preference for avoiding uncertainty, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security. In practice this need for order coexists with the pragmatism of a cosmopolitan trade, shipping and banking hub built around the Canal, where much business runs on trusted personal relationships.

No score is currently available for Panama on this dimension.

No score is currently available for Panama on this dimension.

With a score of 70, Paraguay scores high on this dimension: people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification, and the unequal distribution of power is seen as legitimate, so power holders enjoy clear privileges. Status symbols matter as a way of signalling social position. This steep hierarchy reflects a long history of colonial and authoritarian rule.

With a very low score of 12, Paraguay is a strongly collectivistic society, marked by early integration into and lifelong loyalty towards cohesive in-groups - above all the extended family. This is reinforced by a strong indigenous Guarani heritage of community and kinship. Loyalty is paramount, people protect fellow group members, and an offence brings shame and loss of face.

With a score of 85, Paraguay scores very high on Uncertainty Avoidance. People are cautious about change and risk-averse, maintaining firm codes of behaviour and an emotional need for clear rules and regulations. Much of the security people seek is also found in tight family networks alongside formal structures.

With a low score of 20, Paraguay has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reflected in a living blend of Catholic faith and Guarani custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a score of 56, Paraguay leans towards Indulgence. People are inclined to enjoy life and value leisure, with an optimistic outlook. This comes through in the cherished daily ritual of sharing "terere" (cold yerba mate) and in unhurried social gatherings of family and friends, where time spent together is highly valued.

At 64, Peru scores high on Power Distance, and the evidence is clear at the organisational level: structures tend to be tall and centralised, with large proportions of supervisory staff and wide wage differentials. Some trace this back to the tightly structured, centralised Inca empire; others to colonial and authoritarian governments and the Church. Subordinates often perceive superiors as remote and hard to access, and social hierarchy has historically been entangled with divisions of class and ethnicity.

With a score of 20, Peru is a very collectivistic society, in line with most of Latin America. People tend to find large companies attractive, and - especially among blue-collar workers - involvement with the employer is moral rather than calculative. Managers hold more traditional views and only slowly come to support employee initiative and group activity, generally favouring conformity and valuing security over autonomy.

At 87, Peru scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance, like most Latin American countries shaped by Spanish legal traditions, with a strong need for rules and elaborate legal systems to structure life - even though the felt obligation to obey them is weak, so informal economies and workarounds flourish and there is a marked gap between the country "on paper" and in practice. As Peruvian Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa observed, such an abundance of law breeds its own contradiction: for almost every provision there is another that corrects, qualifies or negates it, so that within this "sea of juridical contradictions" almost any transgression can find a loophole to justify it.

With a very low score of 5 - among the lowest in the world - Peru has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition, reinforced by deep Catholic faith and indigenous Andean custom. There is a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With an intermediate score of 46, Peru shows no clear preference between Indulgence and Restraint. A genuine love of festivity - vivid religious and folk celebrations such as Inti Raymi and countless local fiestas - sits alongside a more restrained, traditional everyday outlook, with neither tendency clearly dominating.

At 94, the Philippines is a strongly hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by deep respect for elders and authority - expressed in honorifics such as "po" and "opo" - and by enduring relationships of patronage and reciprocal obligation.

With a very low score of 17, the Philippines is a strongly collectivistic society, built around close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - above all the family and extended family. Loyalty overrides many formal rules, and reciprocal obligation runs deep, captured in the concept of "utang na loob" (a debt of gratitude). An offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group.

The Philippines scores 44 and has a low preference for avoiding uncertainty. People keep a relatively relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles, rules are flexible, and there is openness to trying new things. This easygoing acceptance of whatever comes is captured in the Filipino expression "bahala na" ("come what may"), and in the resilience and good humour with which people meet adversity.

With a score of 46, the Philippines leans relatively normative, with no strong preference either way. There is great respect for tradition - reinforced by deep Catholic faith and family custom - alongside a practical streak, with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a score of 42, the Philippines leans towards Restraint. People place relatively limited emphasis on freely indulging their impulses and feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, reinforced by conservative Catholic values and strong concern for social propriety. The country's famously warm sociability and love of fiesta and song coexist with this underlying sense of restraint and obligation.

At 68, Poland is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by the strong traditional authority of the Catholic Church and by respect for rank and seniority.

With a score of 47, Poland shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing collectivist and individualist tendencies. Strong family bonds and loyalty to one's close circle remain important, while more individualist, self-reliant patterns - and a focus on personal achievement - have grown markedly since 1989, especially among younger people and in the cities.

Poland scores 93 and has a very strong preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for hard work, precision and punctuality, and some resistance to untested ideas, with security an important motivator. This shows in a weighty bureaucracy, while much of the security people seek is also found in family and close personal networks.

With a score of 49, Poland shows no strong preference on this dimension, balancing normative and pragmatic tendencies. A deep respect for tradition, faith and national history sits alongside a practical, adaptable streak, with neither orientation clearly dominating.

With a low score of 29, Poland is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and lean towards caution and a degree of pessimism, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This reserve fits a society shaped by a hard history of partition, war and occupation, and by a strong sense of duty.

At 63, Portugal accepts a degree of hierarchical distance: those in the most powerful positions are granted privileges, and management controls - the boss expects information from subordinates and they expect to be supervised. A lack of attention from a superior signals that an employee is not valued, which is demotivating. Negative feedback is very hard to give upward, so a good boss watches for small signals to uncover real problems.

With a score of 59, Portugal is moderately Individualist: a loosely knit society in which people are expected to look after themselves and their immediate families. In business, employees are expected to be self-reliant and show initiative, and hiring and promotion are based on merit - though, in keeping with its Latin character, close family ties and personal relationships still count for a good deal.

If one dimension defines Portugal, it is Uncertainty Avoidance: at 99, it has one of the very highest scores in the world. There is a strong emotional need for rules, structure, precision and punctuality, security matters greatly, and untested ideas can meet resistance. This shows in extensive bureaucracy and formality, and a preference for the well-ordered and familiar over the uncertain.

With a score of 42, Portugal leans normative rather than pragmatic. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - bound up with Catholic faith, family custom and pride in a long maritime and imperial history - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a low score of 33, Portugal is a Restrained culture. People place limited emphasis on freely indulging their impulses and feel that behaviour should be governed by social norms, with a degree of caution and a reflective, sometimes wistful outlook - captured in the characteristically Portuguese feeling of "saudade" and expressed in fado music.

With a score of 68, Puerto Rico is a hierarchical society in which people accept an order where everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are accepted as natural, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect direction, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. Respect for elders and authority within the family reinforces this, blending Spanish colonial tradition with US influence.

With a score of 43, Puerto Rico is a collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - above all the extended family. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. This strong family orientation coexists with more individualist patterns absorbed through close ties to the US mainland.

With a low score of 38, Puerto Rico is fairly comfortable with uncertainty. Plans exist but can be adjusted at short notice and improvisation is accepted; people are relatively relaxed, open to new ideas and not especially risk-averse. This easygoing adaptability fits the relaxed Caribbean rhythm of daily life.

With a low score of 27, Puerto Rico has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by Catholic faith and family custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a very high score of 90, Puerto Rico is a strongly Indulgent culture. People place great value on enjoying life and tend towards optimism, with a real love of leisure and celebration. This is vivid in the island's music and dance - salsa, bomba, plena and reggaeton - and its lively festivals and street parties, where colour, rhythm and time spent with others are central to the culture.

At 93, Qatar scores high on this dimension: people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no justification. Power is centralised, managers count on their teams' obedience in return for protection, and the boss is expected to make the decisions. Titles and closeness to the royal family carry real weight, helping people place one another in the hierarchy and show appropriate respect to superiors.

With a low score of 18, Qatar is a strongly collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and tribe. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. Tribal and kinship ties, and the tradition of hospitality, remain central to Qatari life.

At 80, Qatar scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance, with an emotional need for rules, structure and security and some resistance to untested ideas. In practice this need for order coexists with rapid modernisation, and much of the security people seek is also found in family, tribe and religious faith.

With a low score of 14, Qatar has a strongly normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - reinforced by the central place of Islam and tribal custom - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

No score is currently available for Qatar on this dimension.

Romania scores high on this dimension (90), meaning people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone has a place that needs no further justification. Inequalities are taken for granted, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is reinforced by a legacy of centralised communist-era administration and by traditional respect for elders and the Orthodox Church.

With a score of 46, Romania is a relatively collectivistic society, marked by close, long-term loyalty to the in-group - the family, extended family and close relationships. Loyalty overrides many formal rules; an offence brings shame and loss of face; work relationships are seen in moral, family-like terms; and hiring and promotion take account of the in-group. Family and trusted personal networks remain central to getting things done.

Romania scores 90 and has a very strong preference for avoiding uncertainty. There is an emotional need for rules, a respect for hard work, precision and punctuality, and some resistance to untested ideas, with security an important motivator. This shows in a weighty bureaucracy and a preference for the familiar and well-ordered.

With a score of 32, Romania has a normative culture. People are concerned with absolute truths and show great respect for tradition - bound up with Orthodox faith, family custom and folklore - with a relatively small propensity to save for the distant future and a focus on achieving quick results.

With a very low score of 20, Romania is a strongly Restrained culture. People place little emphasis on leisure, exercise control over their impulses, and lean towards caution and a degree of pessimism, feeling that behaviour should be governed by social norms. This reserve fits a society shaped by hardship and the long experience of communist rule.

At 93, Russia is a society where power holders are very distant - underlined by the extreme centralisation of the world's largest country, with the great majority of financial power concentrated in Moscow. The wide gap between the powerful and the rest makes status symbols important: behaviour is expected to reflect one's role, and across business dealings - visits, negotiations, cooperation - the approach is top-down, with clear mandates for each task.

With a score of 46, Russia is relatively collectivist - a trait that even shows in the language, where people say "we with friends" rather than "I and my friends", and "brother" or "sister" may mean a cousin. Family, friends and often neighbours are vital for getting through everyday challenges, and relationships are crucial for obtaining information, introductions or successful negotiations. They must be personal, authentic and trusting before attention turns to the task, and communication tends to be careful and rather implicit.

At 95, Russia is strongly threatened by ambiguity and has built one of the most complex bureaucracies in the world. Planning and briefings are detailed, and Russians like context and background - though presentations may be skipped early on when the focus is on building the relationship. With people regarded as strangers, Russians can appear very formal and distant, but this formality is itself a sign of respect.

With a score of 58, Russia has a pragmatic mindset. People accept that truth depends on context and circumstance, adapt traditions to changing conditions, and show a strong propensity to save and invest, with thrift and perseverance in pursuit of results.